The Glorious Saga of the Indian Army

शूराबद्धु लोकस्य लभते पुनरपि सदा।

तस्मात् सर्वस्य लोकस्य शूरः सम्मानमर्हति॥

न हि शौर्यात् परं किंचित् त्रिलोकेषु विद्यते।

शूरः सर्वं पालयति सर्वं शौर्ये प्रतिष्ठितम्॥

The world endures upon the strength of the brave, as a child rests securely in the arms of his father. Therefore, the warrior—steadfast in courage and duty—stands worthy of honour under all circumstances. Across the three worlds, nothing surpasses valour. The hero protects all, sustains all, and upon his courage rests the very order of existence.

(Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, 99.17–18)

Ancient Indian seers regarded gallantry in battle as the most direct path to the divine realm. The Mahabharata affirms that the celestial abode of Indra is reserved for those who embrace death on the battlefield in the fulfilment of duty. In the great war of Kurukshetra, Sri Krishna exhorted Arjuna to fight without hesitation—victory would earn him the pleasures of the earth; martyrdom would grant him eternal glory in heaven. For the Indian warrior, there existed no third course—only duty.

This uncompromising creed of honour and sacrifice has guided Indian warriors through the ages.

With Independence on 15 August 1947, the Republic of India adopted “Satyameva Jayate”—Truth Alone Triumphs—as its national motto. Since that historic moment, Indian soldiers have fought relentlessly in defence of truth, justice, and the sovereignty of the nation. This chapter serves as the prologue to innumerable acts of valour performed by Indian soldiers in battle, often at the cost of their lives.

Operations in Jammu and Kashmir (1947)

From its inception, Pakistan pursued the forcible annexation of Jammu and Kashmir. When political coercion and economic pressure failed to compel the Dogra ruler to accede, Pakistan orchestrated a tribal invasion under military supervision. Regular formations of the Pakistan Army were covertly deployed to support this operation: the 7 Infantry Division was positioned at Murree and Abbottabad, while an Infantry Brigade stood by at Sialkot to advance on Jammu at short notice. The operation was code-named “Gulmarg.”

Blunting the Invasion

At dawn on 22 October 1947, tribal raiders crossed the Kashmir frontier. In rapid succession, they seized Muzaffarabad, Domel, and Uri. At Uri, state forces mounted a resolute defence, holding the raiders at bay for four crucial days. Their determined resistance proved decisive in preventing the immediate fall of the Valley.

On 26 October, the raiders entered Baramula, where they unleashed a campaign of indiscriminate violence, looting, and atrocities against civilians. Ironically, the very plunder they accumulated slowed their advance—buying India invaluable time.

Meanwhile, following the signing of the Instrument of Accession, Indian forces were mobilised with urgency. On 27 October, troops of 1 Sikh, deployed at Gurgaon, were airlifted to Srinagar. Colonel D. R. Rai, commanding the battalion, swiftly secured the airfield and advanced towards Baramula to delay the enemy. Encountering overwhelming opposition, he fought on while withdrawing and was eventually martyred—setting an early and enduring example of supreme sacrifice.

Battle of Badgam – Defence of Srinagar

The decisive engagement in the defence of Srinagar was fought at Badgam, merely two kilometres short of the airfield, on 3 November 1947. In this critical action, ‘A’ Company of 4 Kumaon withstood repeated enemy assaults for six hours, successfully preventing the enemy from overrunning the airfield.

During this battle, Major Somnath Sharma displayed exceptional courage, leadership, and devotion to duty under intense fire—conduct that would later be remembered as a defining example of Indian military valour.

Blunting the Attack

At first light on 22 October 1947, the raiders crossed the Kashmir frontier and advanced with speed and brutality. Muzaffarabad, Domel, and Uri fell in rapid succession. At Uri, however, the State Forces mounted a determined defence, holding the enemy at bay for four critical days. This resolute stand proved decisive; it delayed the invaders long enough to prevent the Valley from being overrun and subjected to widespread plunder.

By sunset on 26 October, the raiders entered Baramula, where they unleashed indiscriminate violence—murder, looting, and grave atrocities against the civilian population. Ironically, the weight of the booty seized at Baramula slowed their advance, buying precious time for the defenders.

Concurrently, following the signing of the Instrument of Accession, Indian forces were rushed to Kashmir. On 27 October, troops of 1 Sikh, then deployed at Gurgaon, were airlifted to Srinagar. Colonel D. R. Rai, commanding the battalion, immediately organised the defence of the airfield and advanced towards Baramula to delay the enemy’s progress. Encountering the raiders in superior strength, he fought while withdrawing. During this action, Colonel Rai was caught in enemy fire and attained martyrdom, exemplifying the highest traditions of the Indian Army.

The decisive engagement for the defence of Srinagar was fought at Badgam, barely two kilometres short of the Srinagar airfield, on 3 November 1947. In this critical battle, ‘A’ Company of 4 Kumaon repulsed repeated enemy assaults and held its ground for six hours under intense pressure. In the course of this action, Major Somnath Sharma displayed exceptional courage, inspiring leadership, and supreme devotion to duty—conduct that would stand as a benchmark of Indian military valour.

Indian Army on the Offensive

On 5 November 1947, Major General Kalwant Singh assumed command of Indian forces in Jammu and Kashmir. With the immediate defence of Srinagar secured, the initiative now passed to the Indian Army. The moment had arrived to take the battle to the enemy.

An offensive was launched by 161 Infantry Brigade, which had been inducted into the Valley on 7 November. A hard-fought engagement followed at Shalateng, approximately six kilometres from Srinagar, where the enemy suffered a decisive defeat. Maintaining relentless pressure, Indian troops pursued the withdrawing raiders—advancing to Baramulaby the morning of 8 November and reaching Uri by 10 November.

In the latter half of the month, the brigade successfully despatched a battalion to relieve the besieged Poonch garrison, overcoming difficult terrain and enemy interference. Throughout these operations in the Uri–Poonch sector, detachments of the Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF) based at Srinagar and Amritsar provided vital air support. The brigade subsequently held Uri firmly through the severe winter months.

Simultaneously, the situation intensified in the Jammu–Poonch sector. On 16 November, the Jammu Column of 50 Parachute Brigade advanced to relieve State Force garrisons at Mirpur, Kotli, Poonch, Jhangar, Naushahra, Bhimber, and Rajouri, all of which faced encirclement by Pakistani raiders. Despite serious communication difficulties and hostile conditions, the column accomplished its mission with determination and success.

The enemy, however, responded with renewed aggression. On the night of 23–24 December, approximately 6,000 raiders attacked the Jhangar garrison, forcing Indian forces to withdraw to Naushahra. Their subsequent assault on Naushahra was decisively repulsed, aided by timely and effective support from RIAF fighter aircraft.

The defence of Naushahra remained precarious as long as Kot, a dominating hill feature to its north, remained in enemy hands. Accordingly, 50 Parachute Brigade launched a deliberate attack on 1 February, supported by artillery and air power. The raiders resisted fiercely, but by 1000 hours, Kot was firmly secured by Indian forces.

In retaliation, the enemy mounted a massive counter-attack on 6 February, targeting Indian positions at Tain Dhar and Kot. At Tain Dhar, Naik Jadunath Singh of 1 Rajput, manning a forward picket, displayed extraordinary gallantry and indomitable courage under intense enemy fire. The attack was beaten back with heavy losses to the enemy.

Pressing their advantage, Indian forces resumed the advance and recaptured Jhangar on 18 March 1948, restoring control over a critical sector.

During April, the Indian Army fought two significant actions. In the Jammu sector, Dogra troops captured the Barwali Ridge and advanced towards Chingas. During this advance, Second Lieutenant R. R. Rane of the Corps of Engineers, along with his field company, played a decisive role by clearing heavily defended roadblocks under fire. In another major success, Jat and Kumaon units relieved Rajouri on the evening of 12 April, saving countless civilian lives.

In the northern sector, 3 Garhwal Rifles, advancing from Baramula, drove the enemy out of the area between Limber Nala and Kopra by 16 March, further consolidating Indian control.

Together, these sustained and coordinated operations marked the decisive transition of the Indian Army from defence to offence—demonstrating superior leadership, endurance, and battlefield resolve in the face of determined opposition.

The Summer Offensive

In early May 1948, Indian forces in Jammu and Kashmir were comprehensively reorganised to prosecute sustained offensive operations. The Northern Sector, extending from Uri to Leh, was placed under Uri Division (later redesignated 19 Infantry Division), commanded by Major General K. S. Thimayya. The Western Sector, stretching from Rajouri to Jhangar, was entrusted to 2 Airborne Division (later 26 Infantry Division), under Major General Atma Singh. Overall operational control of these campaigns rested with Lieutenant General K. M. Cariappa, GOC-in-C, Western Command.

To facilitate the reorganisation and maintain operational momentum, 77 Parachute Brigade was inducted to relieve 161 Infantry Brigade, enabling the latter to be redeployed for offensive tasks.

Success in the West

The Summer Offensive commenced on 20 May 1948, with 161 Infantry Brigade advancing along the Uri–Domel axis. In a deliberate diversionary manoeuvre, 163 Infantry Brigade simultaneously advanced from Handwara towards Tithwal, drawing enemy forces away from the main thrust.

The offensive achieved notable success and so unsettled the adversary that Pakistan was compelled to commit regular army units openly in support of the raiders. This direct intervention curtailed some of the gains achieved by 161 Brigadealong the Uri–Domel road. 163 Brigade, however, registered significant and sustained success in the Tithwal sector, securing tactically important ground and consolidating Indian positions.

In the Western Sector, a link-up with the besieged Poonch garrison was effected on 22 June. However, owing to inadequate troop strength to hold the corridor, the linking forces were compelled to withdraw to Rajouri, limiting the immediate strategic benefit of the operation.

During renewed enemy attacks on Jhangar—which had been recaptured by Indian forces in March—Brigadier Usman, a distinguished and inspirational leader, was killed in action on the night of 3 July 1948. His death marked a grievous loss and stands as a testament to the supreme sacrifices made by Indian commanders and soldiers in the defence of the nation.

Containing the Northern Thrust

While Indian forces were making steady gains in the western sector, the enemy sought to outflank the Valley from the north, advancing through the Gilgit axis. By late April 1948, raiders had passed through Gurais and reached the vicinity of Wular Lake, posing a grave threat to the heart of Kashmir. Their eviction demanded sustained and coordinated effort, particularly in terms of airlift, logistics, and engineering support under extreme terrain and weather conditions. After determined operations, Gurais was recaptured by Indian forces on 28 June 1948, restoring control over this critical northern approach.

The situation was even more precarious further east in the Leh sector. On 11 July, approximately one thousand raiderslaunched a concerted attack on the outposts guarding Leh. The assault was resolutely repulsed through the outstanding leadership and personal courage of Lieutenant Colonel Thakur Prithi Chand and Major Hari Chand, whose actions ensured the security of this vital region.

Despite these successes, the prolonged siege of Skardu eventually took its toll. After holding out for several months under the resolute and inspiring command of Lieutenant Colonel Sher Jung Thapa, the Skardu garrison fell to the raiders on 14 August 1948. Its loss significantly increased pressure on Leh and emboldened the enemy.

Capitalising on this advantage, the raiders occupied Zoji La and infiltrated into Sonmarg, threatening to sever the lifeline to Ladakh. In response, 77 Parachute Brigade, in a bold and unprecedented operation, reopened the Srinagar–Leh roadwith the support of tanks, overcoming formidable terrain and enemy resistance. The subsequent capture of Dras further strengthened Indian positions and decisively altered the balance in the sector.

With these operations, the northern thrust was effectively contained, and the threat to Leh was finally eliminated—securing India’s strategic hold over Ladakh and reaffirming the Indian Army’s capacity to prevail under the most demanding conditions of high-altitude warfare.

The Last Round

Pakistan never reconciled itself to the setback suffered in the Tithwal sector and launched repeated counter-attacks in an attempt to dislodge Indian forces. In the process, the enemy succeeded in occupying certain tactically important features and maintained constant pressure through harassment and local assaults. During one such action, Company Havildar Major Piru Singh of the Rajputana Rifles made the supreme sacrifice while defending his position, exemplifying the highest traditions of courage and selflessness.

A more serious threat emerged on 13 October, when an enemy force approximately 2,000 strong, supported by artillery, launched a coordinated attack from the west and south. After two days of intense and bitter fighting, the assault was decisively repulsed and the enemy was forced to abandon its effort. In this engagement, Lance Naik Karam Singh of 1 Sikh displayed exceptional gallantry, repeatedly beating back enemy attacks—no fewer than eight times—despite overwhelming odds.

The final and most significant achievement of the Indian Army in the Western Sector was the long-awaited link-up with Poonch. The town had remained encircled by Pakistani raiders for months, and earlier attempts to relieve it had failed. The operation required the clearance of approximately 1,440 square kilometres of enemy-held territory between Rajouri and Poonch. The Jammu Division was launched on this arduous mission during 19–20 September, and after a series of fierce and closely contested battles—particularly in and around Mendhar—the relief of Poonch was finally accomplished on 25 November 1948.

Hostilities continued until the declaration of the ceasefire at 2359 hours on 1 January 1949. With the cessation of fighting, Tithwal remained firmly under Indian control.

Role of the Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF)

The Royal Indian Air Force played a decisive and multifaceted role in the Jammu and Kashmir operations of 1947–48. Detachments operating from Srinagar, Amritsar, and Jammu conducted offensive reconnaissance over enemy-held territory and ensured the continuous airlift of ammunition, supplies, and reinforcements to beleaguered garrisons. Air strikes and sorties were carried out over a wide area, extending from Domel to Mirpur.

During the assault on Kot, RIAF aircraft achieved several direct hits on enemy strongholds. In the battles of Naushahra, Tithwal, and Jhangar, timely and accurate close air support proved instrumental in breaking enemy attacks. It was the sustained air effort of the RIAF that prevented Poonch from falling into enemy hands in early 1948. Continuous aerial resupply of food and ammunition, along with the evacuation of casualties, played a crucial role in sustaining morale among both troops and civilians.

A particularly daring and historic feat was the airlifting of two 25-pounder artillery guns to the improvised airstrip at Poonch on 21 March 1948. Offensive sorties were also undertaken to soften enemy positions around the town.

In early July 1948, accurate strafing by RIAF aircraft blunted the enemy advance at Zoji La. The Air Force also maintained supply lines to Skardu, delaying its fall by several months. In the Gurais sector, Tempest aircraft rocketed and strafed enemy positions, paving the way for Indian ground advances.

When the situation in Ladakh became critical, Air Commodore Mehar Singh personally piloted a Dakota aircraft to Leh, inaugurating a vital air bridge. Thereafter, the air transport of troops, equipment, and supplies to Leh became a sustained and routine operation. It has been rightly observed that while the Dakotas of the RIAF may not have won the battle for Ladakh outright, they unquestionably saved it from being lost.

Cost and Honours

The Jammu and Kashmir operations lasted approximately fourteen months. Indian forces suffered nearly 6,000 casualties, including 1,500 killed, 3,500 wounded, and 1,000 missing. For acts of exceptional bravery and leadership during these operations, five soldiers were awarded the Param Vir Chakra, fifty-three the Maha Vir Chakra, and three hundred and twenty-three the Vir Chakra—a solemn testament to the courage, sacrifice, and indomitable spirit of the Indian soldier.

Operation Polo, 1948

The State of Hyderabad, founded in the eighteenth century by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, came under British protection in 1798 through Lord Wellesley’s Subsidiary Alliance. With the impending lapse of British paramountcy on 15 August 1947, Mir Usman Ali Khan, the Nizam of Hyderabad, issued a firman declaring the State’s independence. Emboldened by these developments, armed Razakar militias began attacking Indian territory beyond the State’s borders, threatening internal security and public order.

These provocations aroused widespread public outrage across India. On 12 September 1948, Army Headquarters issued the directive to Southern Command to proceed. Operation Polo was thus launched. The campaign was planned as a swift, decisive action; within five days, the fate of the Nizam’s regime and the State was to be sealed.

The Western Thrust

The principal thrust of Operation Polo was executed by 1 Armoured Division, comprising 1 Armoured Brigade, 7 Infantry Brigade, and 9 Infantry Brigade, advancing along the Sholapur–Hyderabad axis. 7 Infantry Brigade, designated the Kill Force, led the initial advance, attacking Naldurg from the south. Simultaneously, the Smash Force of 1 Armoured Brigade bypassed the main road to strike the objective from depth.

By 0900 hours on 13 September, Naldurg and Jalkot had been secured, overcoming resistance from the Hyderabad State Army and Razakar elements.

While these brigades pressed along the main axis, the Vir Force (9 Infantry Brigade) advanced northwards towards Tuljapur and Osmanabad, and further north-east towards Latur, tasked with destroying enemy strongholds and disrupting organised resistance. The brigade split into multiple columns to conduct systematic clearance operations. At Tuljapur, entrenched enemy positions delayed progress, but the resistance was eventually eliminated. At Osmanabad, however, opposition was more determined; the town was cleared only by the morning of 15 September, with 75 Razakars killed and 184 captured.

Advancing eastward, the Smash Force encountered stiff resistance on 16 September at Zahirabad, approximately 150 kilometres short of Hyderabad. The position was held by two companies of Hyderabad Infantry, supported by large numbers of Razakars and irregulars. Concentrated fire from Indian tanks was required to break the defence. To the north, the Bidar Garrison posed a further threat to the advancing columns. Accordingly, the Strike Force, which had been leading the advance, was diverted to neutralise Bidar. The town was occupied on 17 September without opposition.

At 1700 hours on 17 September, even as Indian forces continued their advance, Hyderabad Radio announced the surrender of the State Army. The Indian Army reached Hyderabad within the next 24 hours. The formal surrender ceremony took place at 1600 hours on 18 September 1948, when J. N. Chaudhuri, General Officer Commanding the operation, accepted the surrender from S. A. El Edroos, Commander of the Hyderabad State Forces.

Operation Polo thus concluded swiftly and decisively, ensuring the peaceful integration of Hyderabad into the Indian Union and reaffirming the authority of the Indian State through disciplined, restrained, and effective military action.

The Eastern Thrust

A parallel advance was undertaken along the Vijayawada–Hyderabad axis by the Eastern Striking Force, comprising 2/5 Rajputana Rifles Group, one tank squadron, and ancillary elements. The force advanced rapidly until it encountered organised resistance near Suriapet at 0830 hours on 14 September. The position was held by 5 Hyderabad Infantry supported by 1 Hyderabad Lancers. After a deliberate and methodical engagement, the enemy position was reduced by 1600 hours. Enemy losses amounted to 35 killed and 50 captured.

Following an air strike, Suriapet was cleared the next morning. On 16 September, a fierce engagement at Narkatpalliresulted in approximately 45 Razakars being killed. The force then advanced on Chityal, its principal objective, which was captured by 0900 hours on 17 September. At this stage, the column stood barely 63 kilometres short of Hyderabad.

While the main body continued along the primary axis, 3 Sikh Light Infantry, supported by a tank squadron, diverged northward towards Khammamett. No significant resistance was encountered in this sector, enabling rapid consolidation.

The Southern Thrust

Advancing from the south was the Mycol Force, comprising 5/5 Rajputana Rifles Group, Mysore Lancers, and 1 Mysore Infantry. Its primary task was to secure critical railway bridges at Kurnool, Tungabhadra, and Hospet. Kurnool was captured without difficulty, while Tungabhadra was secured after minor opposition on the morning of 13 September.

At Hospet, however, resistance was determined and sustained. Fighting continued until the evening of 17 September. During this period, the Gadag Column (4 Rajput Rifles) threatened the enemy’s rear, compelling their eventual surrender. In these operations, the Mycol Force suffered 16 killed and 54 wounded, while enemy losses ran into several hundreds killed.

Simultaneously, Jaiforce, consisting of 3/5 Rajputana Rifles Group, two companies of 17 Sikh, a tank squadron, and supporting arms, launched a two-pronged advance on Aurangabad on 13 September. The main column advanced along the Nandgaon–Aurangabad axis, while a subsidiary column moved along the Chalisgaon–Aurangabad axis. The main column progressed unopposed until it reached Yerul Hill, held by hostile forces in company strength. In the ensuing action, at least 60 hostiles were killed. The diversionary column met no resistance and linked up with the main force at Daulatabad on 14 September. On 15 September, Jaiforce entered Aurangabad and subsequently dispersed to eliminate remaining Razakar elements.

The Northern Thrust

In the Northern Sector, the Jabalpur Independent Sub-Area initiated operations in the Jalna area in support of Jaiforce. It also executed subsidiary thrusts towards Hingoli and Chanda to neutralise hostile concentrations. Additional small-scale operations were conducted across various parts of Hyderabad State to eradicate residual Razakar activity.

Throughout Operation Polo, the Indian Air Force rendered invaluable support. Enemy positions were repeatedly engaged from the air, and close air support was provided during several ground engagements. This effective air–ground cooperation significantly accelerated the collapse of organised resistance and ensured the swift and decisive conclusion of operations.